目录 绪论 1 一、选题缘起 1 二、学术史回顾 4 三、目前研究的不足及本书的研究目标 40 四、研究思路及创新 49 第一章 清前期重大自然灾害及其特点 56 第一节 清前期的自然、社会环境与重大灾害 57 一、地理环境与灾荒 58 二、气候与灾荒 60 三、人类生存环境的变迁与灾荒区域的延伸 65 四、社会政治因素与灾荒 68 第二节 清前期自然灾害划分的标准 71 一、清代灾荒划分标准述论 73 二、清代灾情等级的划分标准及方法 80 三、关于清代灾荒“初期少、中期多”的观点 84 第三节 清前期的重大自然灾害 87 一、清前期的巨型灾害（巨灾） 87 二、清前期的重大灾害（重灾） 101 三、清前期的大型灾害（大灾） 113 第四节 清前期重大自然灾害的特点 207 一、时间上的经常性、连续性、共时性、季节性和周期性特点 208 二、空间上的普遍性、相对集中性、延伸性和复杂性特点 211 三、灾荒类型上的共存性、并发性和群发性特点 216 四、灾害程度上的累积性特点 221 五、灾荒类型及等级的全面性特点 223 六、时间及区域分布上的相对集中性特点 224 第二章 清前期官赈制度的建设及发展的基础 227 第一节 灾赈制度建设的背景暨自然灾害的后果 228 一、农业或歉收或绝收 228 二、粮价飞涨，饥荒严重 231 三、人口的大量死伤及流迁 232 四、公私建筑及财产的巨大损失 242 五、社会的动荡 248 六、对自然地理及生态环境短暂或永久性的破坏 251 七、清前期灾荒对传统社会道德及心理的消极影响 254 八、清前期灾荒对社会客观补偿 259 第二节 清前期官赈制度的建设及程序 266 一、清代以前官赈制度的发展 267 二、清代官赈机制的建设及发展 269 三、清代官赈的主要程序 275 四、清前期官赈盛极而衰的原因 276 第三节 清前期官赈的人员及机构 278 一、清前期官赈的人员调派及其职能 278 二、清前期官方的赈济“机构” 281 第三章 清前期赈前机制——报灾、勘灾制度的建设与完善 292 第一节 清前期报灾机制的建设及完善 292 一、顺治朝报灾制度的初建 293 二、康熙朝报灾制度的建设与调整 300 三、雍正朝报灾制度的初步确定 307 四、乾隆朝对报灾制度的完善 309 五、清前期灾害信息上报制度的启示 325 第二节 清前期勘灾机制的建立及完善 327 一、顺康雍时期勘灾制度的初建及调整 328 二、乾隆朝勘灾制度的完善及确立 335 三、帝制顶峰期勘灾制度的程序及措施 348 第三节 “勘不成灾”制度与制度外化 385 一、清代灾赈制度外化历程：乾隆朝“勘不成灾”赈济制度初建 386 二、灾赈制度的外化：乾隆朝“勘不成灾”赈济的制度化及措施 391 三、灾赈制度外化的成效：乾隆朝“勘不成灾”制度的影响 404 第四章 清前期官方的赈中机制 411 第一节 清前期官方的钱粮灾赈机制 411 一、赈济区域的扩展及大小口赈粮标准的确定 412 二、顺康雍时期官方灾赈类型的雏形 417 三、乾隆朝钱粮赈济类型的确立及表现形式 420 第二节 清前期官方的粥赈制度 450 一、清代粥赈制度建立的背景 451 二、清代粥赈制度的恢复与建立 455 三、乾隆朝粥赈制度的完善 459 四、清前期粥赈制度的成效 465 第三节 清前期官方的“以工代赈”制度 476 一、清前期官方“以工代赈”制度的建立 477 二、清前期官方“以工代赈”制度的内容 481 三、清前期官方“以工代赈”的具体措施 488 四、清前期官方“以工代赈”的社会效果 496 第五章 清前期赈后机制——蠲免、缓征与借贷 504 第一节 清前期官方的蠲免机制 505 一、顺康雍时期蠲免机制的建立及发展 506 二、乾隆时期蠲免制度的定型及完善 519 三、乾隆朝流抵机制的建立及完善 524 四、清前期官方蠲免事例 529 第二节 清前期的缓征机制 533 一、顺康雍时期缓征制度的发展 533 二、乾隆时期缓征制度的最后确立 536 三、蠲免与缓征制度的“相辅相成” 542 第三节 清前期官方灾赈中的借贷制度 545 一、清前期借贷制度的起源与初建 547 二、乾隆朝借贷制度的完善与实践 551 三、清前期官方借贷制度的社会效应 569 第六章 清前期官方的灾赈物资 579 第一节 清前期官方灾赈物资的形式及运输 579 一、官方赈济物资的形式 579 二、官方赈济物资的筹集 581 三、官方灾赈物资的运输 583 四、交通影响下的赈济物资分配不均 584 第二节 官方灾赈粮食的来源 585 一、仓储 586 二、截漕 589 三、邻省调粟协济 594 第三节 官方灾赈银钱的来源 599 一、发帑 599 二、捐纳 604 三、捐输 610 四、捐监 617 五、其他捐款及闲款 619 第七章 清前期的民间灾赈机制 624 第一节 清前期民间灾赈兴起的原因 625 一、官赈缺失区需要民间赈济的补充 626 二、官方对民间赈济的鼓励与支持 627 三、中国传统文化中助弱扶贫、积善行义思想的影响 632 四、地方精英通过灾赈控制地方和展现社会责任感 635 五、地方绅商富户为避免灾民暴乱抢劫而主动赈灾以自保 637 第二节 清前期民间灾赈制度的建立与发展 641 一、清前期民间灾赈制度的建立 641 二、清前期民间灾赈的主体 644 三、清前期民间灾赈的主要形式与救灾实践 651 第三节 清前期民间灾赈的奖惩与成效 659 一、清前期民间赈济的特点 659 二、清前期民间灾赈的作用及影响 662 三、清前期民间灾赈的社会效应 667 第八章 清前期灾赈机制的社会效应 669 第一节 清前期赈济机制的社会影响 670 一、清前期赈济机制的积极影响 670 二、清前期赈灾机制的消极影响 683 第二节 清前期灾赈机制的弊端 686 一、清前期官赈机制导致的弊端 686 二、清前期灾赈弊端对灾民及社会的冲击 704 第三节 底层认可与天下同治：清代流民收容与管理 708 一、清代流民问题的解决：栖流所的起源及制度建设 710 二、流民赈济的效应：栖流所制度建设的社会影响 719 三、清代流民赈济的天下同治：栖流所的边疆共行 729 四、栖流所的社会历史影响 735 结语 737 一、清前期的自然灾害在中国灾害史上的普遍性及代表性 737 二、清前期灾赈机制的承前启后特点 740 三、灾赈机制是清王朝获取统治合法性的政治智慧的体现 746 四、号称最完善的灾赈制度的局限 748 五、清前期灾赈机制凸显的细致化及刻板性、人性化特点 754 六、清前期灾赈机制臧否并存的社会效应 755 七、制度不是万能的，但制度保障是必需的 760 八、清前期灾赈机制的启示 763 参考文献 765 索引 773 后记 776 Contents Introduction 1 1. Background 1 2. Literature Review 4 3. Research Deficiencies and the Research Goals of the Book 40 4. Reseach Route and Innovation 49 Chapter One Introduction of Major Natural Disasters and the Characteristics of Natural Disasters in the Early Qing Dynasty 56 1.1 Natural，Social Environment and Major Disasters in the Early Qing Dynasty 57 1.1.1 Geographical Environment and Disaster 58 1.1.2 Climate and Disaster 60 1.1.3 Changes in the Human Living Environment and the Extension of Disaster Areas 65 1.1.4 Famine Caused by Social and Political Factors 68 1.2 Division Standard of Natural Disasters in Early Qing Dynasty 71 1.2.1 Standard of Disaster Division in Qing Dynasty 73 1.2.2 The Standard and Method of Disaster Classification in Qing Dynasty 80 1.2.3 Disscussion on the Viewpoint of“Less in the Early Stage and More in the Middle Stage”of Disaster in Qing Dynasty 84 1.3 Major Natural Disasters in the Early Qing Dynasty 87 1.3.1 Huge Disasters in the Early Qing Dynasty（Catastrophes） 87 1.3.2 Devastaing Disasters in the Early Qing Dynasty（Devastaing） 101 1.3.3 Large-scale Disasters in the Early Qing Dynasty（Large-scale） 113 1.4 Characteristics of Major Natural Disasters in the Early Qing Dynasty 207 1.4.1 The Regularity，Continuity，Synchronicity，Seasonality and Dynastyicity of Time 208 1.4.2 Spatial Universality，Relative Concentration，Extension and Complexity 211 1.4.3 The Characteristics of Coexistence，Concurrency and Mass Occurrence of Disaster Types 216 1.4.4 Cumulative Characteristics of Disaster Degree 221 1.4.5 Comprehensive Characteristics of Types and Grades of Disaster 223 1.4.6 The Characteristics of Relative Concentration in Time and Area Distribution 224 Chapter Two Foundation of the Construction and Development of the Government Relief System in the Early Qing Dynasty 227 2.1 The Background of the Construction of Section one Disaster Relief System and the Consequences of Natural Disasters 228 2.1.1 Harvest Failtures in Agriculture 228 2.1.2 Soaring Rice Price Intensified Disaster 231 2.1.3 Mass Casualties，Injuries and Displacement of the Population 232 2.1.4 Huge Losses of Public and Private Buildings and Property 242 2.1.5 Uncertainty of the Society 248 2.1.6 Temporary or Permanent Damage to the Natural Geography and Ecological Environment 251 2.1.7 The Negative Impact of the Disaster in the Early Qing Dynasty on Traditional Social Morality and Psychology 254 2.1.8 Social Objective Compensation for Disaster in Early Qing Dynasty 259 2.2 The Construction and Procedure of Government Relief System in the Early Qing Dynasty 266 2.2.1 The Development of Government Relief System Before Qing Dynasty 267 2.2.2 The Construction and Development of Government Relief Mechanism in Qing Dynasty 269 2.2.3 The Main Procedure of Government Relief in Qing Dynasty 275 2.2.4 Reasons for the Decline of Government Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 276 2.3 Government Relief Personnel and Institutions in the Early Qing Dynasty 278 2.3.1 The Personnel Deployment and Functions of Government Relief in the Early Qing dynasty 278 2.3.2 The Government Relief“Institutions”in the Early Qing Dynasty 281 Chapter Three Early Qing Dynasty Relief Mechanism-Construction and Improvement of Disaster Reporting and Disaster Reconnaissance System 292 3.1 Construction and Improvement of Disaster Reporting Mechanism in the Early Qing Dynasty 292 3.1.1 The Initial Building of the Disaster Reporting System in the Shunzhi Dynasty 293 3.1.2 The Construction and Adjustment of the Disaster Reporting System in the Kangxi Dynasty 300 3.1.3 The preliminary Determination of the Disaster Reporting System in the Yongzheng Dynasty 307 3.1.4 Improvement of the Disaster Reporting System in Qianlong Dynasty 309 3.1.5 Enlightenment from the Disaster Information Reporting System in the Early Qing Dynasty 325 3.2 The Building and Improvement of the Disaster Investigation Mechanism in the Early Qing Dynasty 327 3.2.1 The Initial Building and Adjustment of the Disaster Investigation System During the Shun Kang and Yong dynasties 328 3.2.2 The Improvement and Building of the Disaster Investigation System in the Qianlong dynasty 335 3.2.3 Procedures and Measures of the Disaster Investigation System at the Peak of Monarchy 348 3.3 The System of“Disaster Prediction and Evuluation”and Its Externalization 385 3.3.1 The Externalization of Disaster Relief System in Qing Dynasty：The Initial Building of Disaster Relief System in Qianlong Dynasty 386 3.3.2 Externalization of Disaster Relief System：Institutionalization and Measures of Disaster Relief in Qianlong Dynasty 391 3.3.3 The Effect of Externalization of Disaster Relief System：The Influence of the System of“No Disaster Caused by Exploration”in Qianlong Dynasty 404 Chapter Four Government Relief Mechanism in the Early Qing Dynasty 411 4.1 Financial Disaster Relief Mechanism in the Early Qing Dynasty 411 4.1.1 The Expansion of the Relief Area and the Determination of the Amount of Food Relief 412 4.1.2 The Protype of Government Disaster Relief in Shun kang Yong Dynasty 417 4.1.3 The Building and Manifestation of the Types of Money and Grain Relief in Qianlong Dynasty 420 4.2 The Government System of Gruel Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 450 4.2.1 The Background of the Building of porridge Relief System in Qing Dynasty 451 4.2.2 The Restoration and Building of Porridge Relief System in Qing Dynasty 455 4.2.3 The Improvement of the System of Porridge Relief in Qianlong Dynasty 459 4.2.4 The Effect of Porridge Relief System in the Early Qing Dynasty 465 4.3 The Government System of“Work Relief ”in the Early Qing Dynasty 476 4.3.1 The Building of the Government System of “Work for Relief”in the Early Qing Dynasty 477 4.3.2 The Content of the Government System of “Work Relief ” in the Early Qing Dynasty 481 4.3.3 The Specific Measures of the Government’s“Work Relief” in the Early Qing Dynasty 488 4.3.4 The Social Effect of the Government“Work Relief” in the Early Qing Dynasty 496 Chapter Five The Post Relief Mechanism（Exemption，Payment Postponement and Lengding）in the Early Qing Dynasty 504 5.1 The Exemption Relief Mechanism in the Early Qing Dynasty 505 5.1.1 The Building and Development of the Immunity Mechanism in Shun Kang Yong Dynasty 506 5.1.2 The Finalization and Improvement of the System of Exemption in Qianlong Dynasty 519 5.1.3 The Building and Improvement of the Mechanism of Flow and Arrival in Qianlong Dynasty 524 5.1.4 Cases of Exemption in Early Qing Dynasty 529 5.2 Payment Postponement Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 533 5.2.1 The Development of the System of Payment Postponement in Shun Kang Yong Dynasty 533 5.2.2 The Final Building of the System of Payment Postponement in Qianlong Dynasty 536 5.2.3 Exemption Works with Payment Postponement 542 5.3 Loan Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 545 5.3.1 The Origin and Building of Loan System in the Early Qing Dynasty 547 5.3.2 The Improvement and Practice of Loan System in Qianlong Dynasty 551 5.3.3 The Social Effects of the Government Loan System in the Early Qing Dynasty 569 Chapter Six The Government Relief Materials in the Early Qing Dynasty 579 6.1 The Form and Transportation of Government Disaster Relief Materials in the Early Qing Dynasty 579 6.1.1 Forms of Government Relief Materials 579 6.1.2 The Collection of Government Relief Materials 581 6.1.3 Transportation of Government Disaster Relief Materials 583 6.1.4 Uneven Distribution of Relief Materials under the Influence of Traffic 584 6.2 Sources of Government Relief 585 6.2.1 Warehouse 586 6.2.2 Freight Transport 589 6.2.3 Assistance from Neighboring Provinces 594 6.3 Methods of Government Relief 599 6.3.1 Release of Relief 599 6.3.2 Donation 604 6.3.3 Juan Shu 610 6.3.4 Juan Jian 617 6.3.5 Other Donations and Disposable Funds 619 Chapter Seven Folk Disaster Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 624 7.1 Reasons for the Raise of Folk Disaster Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 625 7.1.1 The Lack of Government Relief Requires the Supplement of Folk Relief 626 7.1.2 The Government’s Encouragement and Support for Non Governmental Relief 627 7.1.3 The Influence of Helping the Weak and Helping the Poor，being Kind in Traditional Chinese Culture 632 7.1.4 Local Elites Control Local Governments and the Sense of Social Responsibility through Disaster Relief 635 7.1.5 Local Businessmen and Rich Families Made Great Efforts to Avoid Riot and Robbery 637 7.2 The Building and Development of Folk Disaster Relief System in the Early Qing Dynasty 641 7.2.1 The Building of Folk Disaster Relief System in the Early Qing Dynasty 641 7.2.2 The Main Body of Folk Disaster Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 644 7.2.3 The Main Forms and Practice of Folk Disaster Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 651 7.3 Rewards，Punishments and Achievements of Folk Disaster Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 659 7.3.1 Characteristics of Folk Disaster Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 659 7.3.2 The Function and Influence of Folk Disaster Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 662 7.3.3 Social Impact of Folk Disaster Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty 667 Chapter Eight Social Effects of Disaster Relief Mechanism in Early Qing Dynasty 669 8.1 Social Influence of Relief Mechanism in Early Qing Dynasty 670 8.1.1 The Positive Influence of Relief Mechanism in Early Qing Dynasty 670 8.1.2 The Negative Influence of Relief in Qianlong Dynasty 683 8.2 Disadvantages of Disaster Relief Mechanism in Early Qing Dynasty 686 8.2.1 The Malpractice Caused by the Government Relief Mechanism in the Early Qing Dynasty 686 8.2.2 The Impact of Disaster Relief on the Victims and Society in the Early Qing Dynasty 704 8.3 Recognition of Ordernary People in the Society：Refugees Shelter and Management in the Qing Dynasty 708 8.3.1 The Solution to the Problem of Refugees in Qing Dynasty：The Origin and System Construction of Habitat 710 8.3.2 The Effect of Refugee Relief：The Social Influence of the Construction of Habitat System 719 8.3.3 Application of the Same Refugee Relief Solution in Qing Dynasty 729 8.3.4 The Social and Historical Influence of Habitat 735 Conclusion 737 1. The Universality and Representativeness of Natural Disasters in the Early Qing Dynasty in the History of Disasters in China 737 2. Characteristics of Disaster Relief Mechanism in Early Qing Dynasty 740 3. Disaster Relief Mechanism is the Embodiment of the Political Wisdom of the Qing Dynasty to Obtain the Legitimacy of the Rule 746 4. Limitation of the Most Perfect Disaster Relief System 748 5. The Mechanism of Disaster Relief in the Early Qing Dynasty is Characterized by Delicacy，Rigidity and Humanization 754 6. Disaggrement on the Social Effect of the Coexistence in the Disaster Relief Mechanism in the Early Qing Dynasty 755 7. The Necessity of Providing System Guarantee 760 8. Enlightenment of Disaster Relief Mechanism from Early Qing Dynasty 763 Reference 765 Index 773 Postscript 776
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