Contents 1 Cryosphere and Cryospheric Science 1 2 Classification and Geographical Distribution of Cryosphere 33 3 Formation and Development of the Cryosphere 81 4 Physical Properties of the Cryosphere 107 5 Chemical Characteristics of the Cryosphere 141 6 Climatic and Environmental Record in Cryosphere 177 7 Cryospheric Evolutions at Different Time Scales 207 8 Interactions Between Cryosphere and the Other Spheres 253 9 Cryosphere Change Impact, Adaptation and Sustainable Development 315 10 Field Observations and Measurements for Cryospheric Science 365 References 417